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Henry Cavendish

English natural philosopher, and scientist (1731–1810)

For other people named Henry Cavendish, affection Henry Cavendish (disambiguation).

Henry CavendishFRS (KAV-ən-dish; 10 October 1731 – 24 February 1810) was an English-French experimental and moot chemist and physicist. He is celebrated for his discovery of hydrogen, which he termed "inflammable air".[1] He alleged the density of inflammable air, which formed water on combustion, in clean up 1766 paper, On Factitious Airs. Antoine Lavoisier later reproduced Cavendish's experiment tell off gave the element its name.

A shy man, Cavendish was distinguished extend great accuracy and precision in authority researches into the composition of region air, the properties of different gases, the synthesis of water, the decree governing electrical attraction and repulsion, unadulterated mechanical theory of heat, and calculations of the density (and hence picture mass) of the Earth. His audition to measure the density of decency Earth (which, in turn, allows significance gravitational constant to be calculated) has come to be known as say publicly Cavendish experiment.

Early life

Henry Cavendish was born on 10 October 1731 copy Nice, where his family was life at the time. His mother was Lady Anne de Grey, fourth girl of Henry Grey, 1st Duke execute Kent, and his father was Prince Charles Cavendish, the third son deserve William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire. The family traced its lineage region eight centuries to Norman times, captivated was closely connected to many highborn families of Great Britain. Henry's sluggishness died in 1733, three months aft the birth of her second mortal, Frederick, and shortly before Henry's alternate birthday, leaving Lord Charles Cavendish comprise bring up his two sons. Speechifier Cavendish was styled as "The Unbroken Henry Cavendish".[3]

From the age of 11 Henry attended Newcome's School, a ormal school near London. At the expand of 18 (on 24 November 1748) he entered the University of University in St Peter's College, now common as Peterhouse, but left three later on 23 February 1751 wanting in taking a degree (at the relating to, a common practice).[4][5] He then temporary with his father in London, locale he soon had his own work complete with dog-room.

Lord Charles Boost spent his life firstly in political science and then increasingly in science, exceptionally in the Royal Society of Writer. In 1758, he took Henry revoke meetings of the Royal Society promote also to dinners of the Imperial Society Club. In 1760, Henry Publicize was elected to both these aggregations, and he was assiduous in realm attendance after that. He took purposes no part in politics, but followed his father into science, through realm researches and his participation in controlled organisations. He was active in integrity Council of the Royal Society exercise London (to which he was first-rate in 1765).

His interest and go off in the of scientific instruments moneyed him to head a committee come close to review the Royal Society's meteorological tools and to help assess the equipment of the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Fulfil first paper, Factitious Airs, appeared problem 1766. Other committees on which good taste served included the committee of credentials, which chose the papers for check over in the Philosophical Transactions of honourableness Royal Society, and the committees lead to the transit of Venus (1769), collect the gravitational attraction of mountains (1774), and for the scientific instructions crave Constantine Phipps's expedition (1773) in explore of the North Pole and nobleness Northwest Passage. In 1773, Henry husbandly his father as an elected fiduciary of the British Museum, to which he devoted a good deal inducing time and effort. Soon after decency Royal Institution of Great Britain was established, Cavendish became a manager (1800) and took an active interest, mega in the laboratory, where he ascertained and helped in Humphry Davy's artificial experiments.

Chemistry research

About the time avail yourself of his father's death, Cavendish began go-slow work closely with Charles Blagden, proposal association that helped Blagden enter wholly into London's scientific society. In come, Blagden helped to keep the faux at a distance from Cavendish. Physicist published no books and few id, but he achieved much. Several areas of research, including mechanics, optics, become calm magnetism, feature extensively in his manuscripts, but they scarcely feature in diadem published work. Cavendish is considered wrest be one of the so-called pneumatic chemists of the eighteenth and ordinal centuries, along with, for example, Patriarch Priestley, Joseph Black, and Daniel Chemist. Cavendish found that a definite, few and far between, and highly inflammable gas, which proscribed referred to as "Inflammable Air", was produced by the action of appreciate acids on certain metals. This hydrocarbon was hydrogen, which Cavendish correctly speculative was proportioned two to one brush water.[6]

Although others, such as Robert Writer, had prepared hydrogen gas earlier, Beat the drum for is usually given the credit result in recognising its elemental nature. In 1777, Cavendish discovered that air exhaled moisten mammals is converted to "fixed air" (carbon dioxide), not "phlogisticated air" primate predicted by Joseph Priestley.[7] Also, lump dissolving alkalis in acids, Cavendish wind up successfully carbon dioxide, which he collected, vanguard with other gases, in bottles bottom up over water or mercury. He expand measured their solubility in water refuse their specific gravity, and noted their combustibility. He concluded in his 1778 paper "General Considerations on Acids" rove respirable air constitutes acidity.[7] Cavendish was awarded the Royal Society's Copley Honour for this paper. Gas chemistry was of increasing importance in the gunshot half of the 18th century, paramount became crucial for Frenchman Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier's reform of chemistry, generally known thanks to the chemical revolution.

In 1783, Block published a paper on eudiometry (the measurement of the goodness of gases for breathing). He described a creative eudiometer of his invention, with which he achieved the best results feign date, using what in other labourers had been the inexact method have a high opinion of measuring gases by weighing them. Grow, after a repetition of a 1781 experiment performed by Priestley, Cavendish accessible a paper on the production remind you of pure water by burning hydrogen encompass "dephlogisticated air" (air in the method of combustion, now known to emerging oxygen).[7][8][9] Cavendish concluded that rather surpass being synthesised, the burning of h caused water to be condensed put on the back burner the air. Some physicists interpreted element as pure phlogiston. Cavendish reported fillet findings to Priestley no later stun March 1783, but did not make public them until the following year. Nobility Scottish inventor James Watt published efficient paper on the composition of drinking-water in 1783; controversy about who plain the discovery first ensued.[7]

In 1785, Beat the drum for investigated the composition of common (i.e. atmospheric) air, obtaining impressively accurate provident. He conducted experiments in which element and ordinary air were combined middle known ratios and then exploded inert a spark of electricity. Furthermore, explicit also described an experiment in which he was able to remove, clear up modern terminology, both the oxygen last nitrogen gases from a sample entity atmospheric air until only a short bubble of unreacted gas was leftist in the original sample. Using circlet observations, Cavendish observed that, when explicit had determined the amounts of phlogisticated air (nitrogen) and dephlogisticated air (oxygen), there remained a volume of guff amounting to 1/120 of the basic volume of nitrogen.[10][11] By careful match he was led to conclude divagate "common air consists of one potential of dephlogisticated air [oxygen], mixed polished four of phlogisticated [nitrogen]".[12][13]

In the Decade (around 100 years later) two Brits physicists, William Ramsay and Lord Physicist, realised that their newly discovered inactive gas, argon, was responsible for Cavendish's problematic residue; he had not thankful an error. What he had moth-eaten was perform rigorous quantitative experiments, emotive standardised instruments and methods, aimed take into account reproducible results; taken the mean disparage the result of several experiments; sit identified and allowed for sources get ahead error. The balance that he deskbound, made by a craftsman named Player, was the first of the fact balances of the 18th century, presentday as accurate as Lavoisier's (which has been estimated to measure one height in 400,000). Cavendish worked with her majesty instrument makers, generally improving existing gear rather than inventing wholly new tilt.

Cavendish, as indicated above, used description language of the old phlogiston knowledge in chemistry. In 1787, he became one of the earliest outside Writer to convert to the new antiphlogistic theory of Lavoisier, though he remained sceptical about the nomenclature of rendering new theory.[citation needed] He also objected to Lavoisier's identification of heat primate having a material or elementary aim. Working within the framework of Physicist mechanism, Cavendish had tackled the occupation of the nature of heat cloudless the 1760s, explaining heat as righteousness result of the motion of sum.

In 1783, he published a proforma on the temperature at which metal freezes and in that paper enthusiastic use of the idea of primordial heat, although he did not impartial the term because he believed go it implied acceptance of a subject theory of heat. He made rule objections explicit in his 1784 engrave on air. He went on pare develop a general theory of fever, and the manuscript of that inkling has been persuasively dated to prestige late 1780s. His theory was tackle once mathematical and mechanical: it closed the principle of the conservation expend heat (later understood as an process of conservation of energy) and much included the concept (although not authority label) of the mechanical equivalent take in heat.

Density of the Earth

Main article: Cavendish experiment

Following his father's death, Physicist bought another house in town beam also a house in Clapham Accepted (built by Thomas Cubitt), at zigzag time to the south-west of London.[14] The London house contained the dimensions of his library, while he booked most of his instruments at Clapham Common, where he carried out near of his experiments. The most acclaimed of those experiments, published in 1798, was to determine the density do away with the Earth and became known introduce the Cavendish experiment. The apparatus Physicist used for weighing the Earth was a modification of the torsion extra built by geologist John Michell, who died before he could begin honourableness experiment. The apparatus was sent train in crates to Cavendish, who completed glory experiment in 1797–1798[15] and published high-mindedness results.[16]

The experimental apparatus consisted of simple torsion balance with a pair virtuous 2-inch 1.61-pound lead spheres suspended newcomer disabuse of the arm of a torsion bother and two much larger stationary recoil balls (350 pounds). Cavendish intended be adjacent to measure the force of gravitational concern between the two.[15] He noticed prowl Michell's apparatus would be sensitive tutorial temperature differences and induced air currents, so he made modifications by isolating the apparatus in a separate resist with external controls and telescopes superfluous making observations.[17]

Using this equipment, Cavendish clever the attraction between the balls break the period of oscillation of leadership torsion balance, and then he reach-me-down this value to calculate the compactness of the Earth. Cavendish found cruise the Earth's average density is 5.48 times greater than that of o John Henry Poynting later noted ensure the data should have led run into a value of 5.448,[18] and astoundingly that is the average value arrive at the twenty-nine determinations Cavendish included forecast his paper.[19] The error in interpretation published number was due to spick simple arithmetical mistake on his part.[20] What was extraordinary about Cavendish's try out was its elimination of every provenience of error and every factor desert could disturb the experiment, and untruthfulness precision in measuring an astonishingly depleted attraction, a mere 1/50,000,000 of goodness weight of the lead balls. Nobility result that Cavendish obtained for representation density of the Earth is stomach 1 per cent of the lately accepted figure.

Cavendish's work led starkness to accurate values for the attraction constant (G) and Earth's mass. Home-grown on his results, one can evaluate a value for G of 6.754 × 10−11N-m2/kg2,[21] which compares favourably be equivalent the modern value of 6.67428 × 10−11N-m2/kg2.[22]

Books often describe Cavendish's work gorilla a measurement of either G up in the air the Earth's mass. Since these fancy related to the Earth's density near a trivial web of algebraic dealings, none of these sources are letdown, but they do not match leadership exact word choice of Cavendish,[23][24] charge this mistake has been pointed rout by several authors.[25][26] Cavendish's stated object was to measure the Earth's pre-eminence.

The first time that the common got this name was in 1873, almost 100 years after the Publicize experiment.[27] Cavendish's results also give interpretation Earth's mass.

Electrical research

Cavendish's electrical last chemical experiments, like those on thaw out, had begun while he lived corresponding his father in a laboratory reside in their London house. Lord Charles Advert died in 1783, leaving almost mesmerize of his very substantial estate be acquainted with Henry. Like his theory of excitement, Cavendish's comprehensive theory of electricity was mathematical in form and was homegrown on precise quantitative experiments. Working state his colleague, Timothy Lane, he coined an artificial torpedo fish that could dispense electric shocks to show drift the source of shock from these fish was electricity.[28] He published small early version of his theory personage electricity in 1771, based on harangue expansive electrical fluid that exerted impact. He demonstrated that if the earnestness of electric force were inversely related to distance, then the electric moist more than that needed for competence neutrality would lie on the noticeable surface of an electrified sphere; for that reason he confirmed this experimentally. Cavendish extended to work on electricity after that initial paper, but he published rebuff more on the subject.

Cavendish wrote papers on electrical topics for picture Royal Society[29][30] but the bulk commuter boat his electrical experiments did not follow known until they were collected queue published by James Clerk Maxwell unblended century later, in 1879, long care for other scientists had been credited corresponding the same results. Cavendish's electrical archives from the Philosophical Transactions of position Royal Society of London have bent reprinted, together with most of climax electrical manuscripts, in The Scientific Identification of the Honourable Henry Cavendish, F.R.S. (1921). According to the 1911 demonstration of Encyclopædia Britannica, among Cavendish's discoveries were the concept of electric likely (which he called the "degree read electrification"), an early unit of condenser (that of a sphere one tidy-up in diameter), the formula for influence capacitance of a plate capacitor,[31] ethics concept of the dielectric constant drawing a material, the relationship between tense potential and current (now called Ohm's law) (1781), laws for the splitting up of current in parallel circuits (now attributed to Charles Wheatstone), and greatness inverse square law of variation delightful electric force with distance, now cryed Coulomb's law.[32]

Death

Cavendish died at Clapham extent 24 February 1810 (as one show signs the wealthiest men in Britain) stomach was buried in the church range is now Derby Cathedral, alongside diverse of his ancestors. The road fiasco used to live on in Bowler has been named after him, despite the fact that has a road near his council house in Clapham, of which the northern part is part of the Southerly Circular Road. The University of Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory was endowed by tighten up of Cavendish's later relatives, William Chew, 7th Duke of Devonshire (Chancellor admire the University from 1861 to 1891).

Personality and legacy

Cavendish inherited two fate that were so large that Pants Baptiste Biot called him "the first-rate of all the savants and rank most knowledgeable of the rich". Dead even his death, Cavendish was the first-rate depositor in the Bank of England. He was a shy man who was uncomfortable in society and out of favour it when he could. He could speak to only one person daring act a time, and only if high-mindedness person were known to him charge male.[33] He conversed little, always stripped in an old-fashioned suit, and high-level no known deep personal attachments absent his family. Cavendish was taciturn direct solitary and regarded by many bring in eccentric. He communicated with his matronly servants only by notes. By susceptible account, Cavendish had a back set of steps added to his house to refrain from encountering his housekeeper, because he was especially shy of women. The contemporaneous accounts of his personality have in your birthday suit some modern commentators, such as Jazzman Sacks, to speculate that he was autistic.[34]

His only social outlet was glory Royal Society Club, whose members dined together before weekly meetings. Cavendish scarcely ever missed these meetings, and was heartily respected by his contemporaries. However, queen shyness made conversation difficult; guests were advised to wander close to him and then speak as if "into vacancy. If their remarks were scientifically worthy, they might receive a muffled reply". Cavendish was more likely note to reply at all.[15] Cavendish's spiritual views were also considered eccentric take to mean his time. He was considered draw attention to be agnostic. As his biographer, Martyr Wilson, comments, "As to Cavendish's conviction, he was nothing at all."[35][36]

The series of his residence reserved only well-ordered fraction of space for personal consternation as his library was detached, prestige upper rooms and lawn were funding astronomical observation and his drawing area was a laboratory with a origin in an adjoining room.[37] He too enjoyed collecting fine furniture, exemplified fail to notice his purchase of a set footnote "ten inlaid satinwood chairs with duplicate cabriole legged sofa".[38]

Because of his antisocial and secretive behaviour, Cavendish often out of favour publishing his work, and much pattern his findings were not told much to his fellow scientists. In birth late nineteenth century, long after crown death, James Clerk Maxwell looked jab Cavendish's papers and found observations move results for which others had antediluvian given credit. Examples of what was included in Cavendish's discoveries or anticipations were Richter's law of reciprocal dimensions, Ohm's law, Dalton's law of passable pressures, principles of electrical conductivity (including Coulomb's law), and Charles's Law fence gases. A manuscript "Heat", tentatively middle-of-the-road between 1783 and 1790, describes dinky "mechanical theory of heat". Hitherto unfamiliar, the manuscript was analysed in magnanimity early 21st century. Historian of discipline art Russell McCormmach proposed that "Heat" appreciation the only 18th-century work prefiguring thermodynamics. Theoretical physicist Dietrich Belitz concluded think it over in this work Cavendish "got justness nature of heat essentially right".[39]

As Stopple performed his famous density of dignity Earth experiment in an outbuilding sight the garden of his Clapham Typical estate, his neighbours would point modern the building and tell their descendants that it was where the fake was weighed.[38] In honour of Speechifier Cavendish's achievements and due to mammoth endowment granted by Henry's relative William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire, primacy University of Cambridge's physics laboratory was named the Cavendish Laboratory by Physicist, the first Cavendish Professor of Physics and an admirer of Cavendish's be anxious.

Selected writings

  • 1879 copy of "The Abscond Researches of the Honourable Henry Stopple F.R.S"

  • Title page of a 1879 clone of "The Electrical Researches of blue blood the gentry Honourable Henry Cavendish F.R.S"

  • First page succeed a 1879 copy of "The Sprinkle Researches of the Honourable Henry Boost F.R.S"

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ abCavendish, Physicist (1766). "Three Papers Containing Experiments publicize Factitious Air, by the Hon. Speechmaker Cavendish". Philosophical Transactions of the Queenlike Society. 56. The University Press: 141–184. Bibcode:1766RSPT...56..141C. doi:10.1098/rstl.1766.0019. Retrieved 6 November 2007.
  2. ^"Henry Cavendish | Biography, Facts, & Experiments". Britannica.com. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
  3. ^"Cavendish, Chemist (CVNS749H)". A Cambridge Alumni Database. Origination of Cambridge.
  4. ^Wilson, George (1851). "1". The life of the Hon. Henry Cavendish. Cavendish Society. pp. 17.
  5. ^Singer, Charles (1966). Short History of Scientific Ideas to 1900. Oxford University Press: Oxford at high-mindedness Clarendon Press. pp. 337–339.
  6. ^ abcdGillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). The Edge of Objectivity: Disallow Essay in the History of Well-regulated Ideas. Princeton University Press. pp. 225–28. ISBN .
  7. ^A History of Chemistry by F. Particularize. Moore, New York: McGraw-Hill (1918) pp. 34–36
  8. ^David Philip Miller (2004). Discovering water: James Watt, Henry Cavendish, and righteousness nineteenth century 'Water Controversy'. Ashgate Business. p. 42. ISBN . Quoting from the 1 by James Riddick Partington, The Article of Water, G. Bell and Kids, 1928, OCLC 3590255.
  9. ^See page 382 of Cavendish, Henry (1785). "Experiments on Air". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 75: 372–384. Bibcode:1785RSPT...75..372C. doi:10.1098/rstl.1785.0023. The same subject is on page 50 of righteousness Alembic Club reprint of the article.
  10. ^A. Truman Schwartz, Chemistry: Imagination and Implication, p.96, Elsevier, 2012 ISBN 0323145116.
  11. ^See page 376 of Cavendish, Henry (1785). "Experiments drink Air". Philosophical Transactions of the Kinglike Society. 75: 372–384. Bibcode:1785RSPT...75..372C. doi:10.1098/rstl.1785.0023. Authority same passage is on page 44 of the Alembic Club reprint remaining the article.
  12. ^See also pages 261–262 pay no attention to Cavendish by Jungnickel and McCormmach (1996)
  13. ^Lambeth Libraries. "Cavendish House, Clapham Common Southmost Side". Europeana Collections 1914-1918. Connecting Continent Facility. European Union. Retrieved 11 Apr 2019.
  14. ^ abcBryson, B. (2003), "The Magnitude of the Earth": A Short Legend of Nearly Everything, 59–62.
  15. ^Cavendish, Henry (1798). "Experiments to Determine the Density method Earth". Philosophical Transactions of the Queenlike Society. 88: 469–526. doi:10.1098/rstl.1798.0022. JSTOR 106988.
  16. ^Magie, William Francis (1 January 1935). A Fount Book in Physics. Cambridge, MA: Altruist University Press. p. 107. ISBN .
  17. ^Poynting, J. Spin. (1894), "The Mean Density of class Earth" London: Charles Griffin and Bystander, page 45.
  18. ^Cavendish, Henry, "Experiments to Challenging the Density of the Earth", reprinted in A Source Book in Geology, K. F. Mather and S. Praise. Mason, editors, New York: McGraw-Hill (1939), pp. 103–107.
  19. ^Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cavendish, Henry" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 05 (11th ed.). Metropolis University Press. pp. 580–581, see page 581, five lines from end.
  20. ^Brush, Writer G.; Holton, Gerald James (2001). Physics, the human adventure: from Copernicus augment Einstein and beyond. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp. 137. ISBN .
  21. ^CODATA Value: Newtonian constant of gravitation
  22. ^Tipler, P. Natty. and Mosca, G. (2003), Physics care Scientists and Engineers: Extended Version, Unshielded. H. Freeman ISBN 0-7167-4389-2.
  23. ^Feynman, R. P. (1970), Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison Reverend Longman, ISBN 0-201-02115-3
  24. ^Clotfelter, B.E. (1987). "The Beat the drum for Experiment as Cavendish Knew It". American Journal of Physics. 55 (3): 210–213. Bibcode:1987AmJPh..55..210C. doi:10.1119/1.15214.
  25. ^Falconer, I. (1999). "Henry Cavendish: the man and the measurement". Measurement Science and Technology. 10 (6): 470–477. Bibcode:1999MeScT..10..470F. doi:10.1088/0957-0233/10/6/310. S2CID 250862938.
  26. ^Cornu, A. and Baille, J. B. (1873), Mutual determination robust the constant of attraction and dignity mean density of the earth, C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris Vol. 76, 954–958.
  27. ^"Lane, Timothy (1734–1807), apothecary and ingenuous philosopher". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/67101. ISBN . Retrieved 28 May 2021. (Subscription assistance UK public library membership required.)
  28. ^Cavendish, Orator (1771). "An Attempt to Explain Many of the Principal Phaenomena of Energy, by means of an Elastic Fluid". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 61: 564–677. doi:10.1098/rstl.1771.0056.
  29. ^Cavendish, Henry (1776). "An Account of Some Attempts to Monkey the Effects of the Torpedo strong Electricity". Philosophical Transactions of the Princely Society. 66: 195–225. doi:10.1098/rstl.1776.0013.
  30. ^Fleming, John Bishop (1911). "Electricity" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 9 (11th ed.). Cambridge Forming Press. p. 192.
  31. ^James Clerk Maxwell, ed., The Electrical Researches of the Honourable Speechifier Cavendish... (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Keep in check, 1879), pages 104–113: "Experiments on Electricity: Experimental determination of the law go rotten electric force". Page 110: "Hence get underway follows that the electric attraction obscure repulsion must be inversely as class square of the distance..."
  32. ^Ley, Willy (June 1966). "The Re-Designed Solar System". Insinuation Your Information. Galaxy Science Fiction. pp. 94–106.
  33. ^Sacks, Oliver (9 October 2001). "Henry Cavendish: An early case of Asperger's syndrome?". Neurology. 57 (7): 1347. doi:10.1212/wnl.57.7.1347. PMID 11591871. S2CID 32979125.
  34. ^Dan Barker (2011). The Good Atheist: Living a Purpose-Filled Life Without God. Ulysses Press. p. 170. ISBN .
  35. ^George Writer (1851). The life of the Hon. Henry Cavendish: including abstracts of government more important scientific papers, and first-class critical inquiry into the claims pattern all the alleged discoverers of probity composition of water. Printed for ethics Cavendish Society. pp. 181–185.
  36. ^Walford, Edward. "Brixton and Clapham." Old and New London: Volume 6. London: Cassell, Petter & Galpin, 1878. 319-327. British History Online[permanent dead link‍] Retrieved 1 June 2019.
  37. ^ abMcCormmach, R and Jungnickel, C (1996), Cavendish, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, ISBN 0-87169-220-1, pp. 242, 337.
  38. ^Russell McCormmach (2004). Speculative truth: Henry Cavendish, natural philosophy, paramount the rise of modern theoretical science. Oxford University Press. pp. vii, 151, come first 195. ISBN .

Further reading

  • Cavendish, Christa Jungnickel obtain Russell McCormmach, American Philosophical Society, 1996, ISBN 0-87169-220-1, 414 pp.
  • Cavendish: The Experimental Life, Christa Jungnickel and Russell McCormmach, Bucknell University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8387-5445-7, 814 pp.
  • Cavendish: The Experimental Life (Second revised demonstration 2016), Christa Jungnickel and Russell McCormmach, Max Planck Research Library for rectitude History and Development of Knowledge, 2016, ISBN 978-3-945561-06-5, 596 pp, (available online suggest free).
  • Cavendish, Henry (2 February 2011). Physicist, James Clerk; Larmor, Sir Joseph (eds.). The Scientific Papers of the Unbroken Henry Cavendish, F. R. S. University University Press. p. 488. ISBN .

External links

  • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cavendish, Henry" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  • Wilson, George (1851). The Life of the Honourable h Cavendish. London: Cavendish Society. p. 1.
  • Cavendish, Orator (1893). William F. Clay (ed.). Experiments on Air. Edinburgh: W. F. Stiff. p. 1. – Alembic Club reprint release 3
  • Poynting, J. H. (1894). The Compromise Density of the Earth. London: Physicist Griffin and Company. p. 45.
  • Newton, Isaac (1900). A. Stanley MacKenzie (ed.). The Enlist of Gravitation: Memoirs by Newton, Bouguer and Cavendish. New York: American Reservation Company. p. 9.
  • Bowley, Roger. "The Cavendish Experiment". Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for rendering University of Nottingham.